Canal Is Formed When Water Comes: Qing Archival and Cartographical Materials on River Engineering in the National Palace Museum

Introduction

China has been an agriculture-based country since ancient times. The stable development of agricultural economy is the foundation of social stability and the livelihood of the masses, as well as the basis for imperial regime and its financial income. It is in this connection that the imperial governments over the ages had pooled a large number of experts and a tremendous amount of resources into the enterprises of river regulation and water conservancy, expecting to stabilize agricultural production and national economy, so as to maintain social order and stability. After occupying the central plains, the Manchus extended the economic tradition of agriculture-based economy of previous dynasties. As it continued to absorb the flood control experiences of its predecessors, the Qing government was able to develop more mature knowledge of flood control, as well as innovated and improved techniques in disaster prevention and river engineering.

River engineering is a general term for government-initiated projects in regulating river courses, such as the construction of dams, the excavation of irrigation channels, the reinforcement of dikes, and river dredging. The infrastructures to be constructed would include dams, dikes, fascines, gates, culverts, slopes, and life-saving piles. As for maintenance, the infrastructures would undergo minor repair every three years, medium repair every five years, and major repair every ten years. Routine maintenance was implemented on an annual basis as well. Moreover, urgent repair would be made in case of emergency.

The National Palace Museum is home to a rich collection of Qing cartographical and archival materials generated for purposes of river engineering. Apart from such written records on the regulation of the Yellow River, the Huai River and the Canal, as well as those addressing the dredging of the Hongze Lake and the construction of the Qiantang River, the collection features many fine engineering drawings specifically made by local governors to accompany their reports to the emperors on the process of river engineering. Intended in the past for the exclusive review by the emperors, these materials are now showcased in the present exhibition to allow the audiences an opportunity to get to know the important achievements of the Qing dynasty in river regulating and engineering.

The presentation is made up of three sections: "Famous Rivers and Lakes," "Measures in River Regulation," and "Famous Governors in River Regulation." The first section focuses on the locales of waterways, and on view are the maps of the courses of the Yellow River, the Huai River, and the Canal, as well as the Hongze Lake, the junction between the Yellow and the Huai Rivers where regulating measures were implemented during the Qing dynasty, and the Qiantang River in the province of Zhejiang, so as to present an overview of the landforms of famous rivers and lakes of the Qing. The second section focuses on events, and several instances of river regulation of the Qing dynasty were highlighted to illustrate the regulating strategies brought up by Qing emperors and officials when facing river floods. The third section focuses on individuals, introducing famous governors who successfully implemented river regulation measures in the Qing Dynasty, so that the visitors may recognize their contributions to river engineering and their efforts in advancing flood control techniques.

Famous Rivers and Lakes

It is noted in the "Counsels of Yu the Great" section of the Shangshu (Book of Documents) that "the earth has been reduced to order, and the influences of heaven are producing their complete effect," suggesting that Yu's success in river regulation made it possible for all living things on earth to grow and prosper. The description had since then been taken as a reminder of emperors of succeeding dynasties to exert every effort to prevent floods, in order to establish a strong country where their people can enjoy a wealthy life. River courses are the water supply networks required by agricultural irrigation. However, the periodic river surge is a menace to agriculture. Such important rivers as the Yellow River, the Huai River, the Yongding River, the Hongze Lake, and the Qiantang River, significantly affect national economy and people' livelihood, and were the foci of river engineering in the Qing dynasty. On view in this section are maps of waterways and official gazetteers on river and water conservancy of the Qing dynasty, guiding the audiences to understand the close relations between river engineering and the destiny of the regime.

Huanghe Tu / Map of the Yellow River
Ink and color on paper
Qing dynasty

 

Huanghe Quantu / Map of the Yellow River
Ink and color on silk
Qing dynasty

 
    
Huangchao Hequ Zhi: Huanghe
Chronicles of River Channels: Yellow River

Compiled by the State Historiography Institute, Qing dynasty
Court manuscript edition in red-lined columns, Qing dynasty
  Huanghuaihe Tu
Map of the Yellow and Huai Rivers

Ink and color on paper
Qing dynasty
     
 
Shuidao Tigang
Outline of Water Channels

Written by Qi Zhaonan
Imprint by the Chuanjing Print House, 1776, Qing dynasty
  Jifu Anlan Zhi
Records of Water Control in the Capital Region

Written by Wang Lütai
Imperial Printing Office edition
1809, Qing dynasty
     
 
Haining Chenyuan Disizhan Zhi Shengchengnei Xinggong Daoli Tushuo
Map of the Route from Haining to the Imperial Palace in Hangzhou

Ink and color on paper
Qing dynasty
  Haitang Zongtu
Map of the Dikes

From the Qinding Nanxun Shengdian (Grand Occasion of the Southern Inspection), written on imperial order by Agūi, et al.
Court manuscript edition in red-lined columns, Qing dynasty
     
   
Zhili Hequzhi
Chronicles of the Rivers of Zhili

Written by Chen Yi
From the Siku Quanshu Library of the Wenyuange Pavilion of the Qianlong reign (1736-1795), Qing dynasty
   

 

Measures in River Regulation

The success or failure of a plan is subject to the efforts exerted. The emperors of the Qing dynasty were in the belief that finding the governors capable of controlling floods was more important than developing measures. To fulfill the objective of river regulation, they ordered river administrators and local governors to draw river maps for imperial review. They also read books on flood control, and even conducted on-site inspections to supervise river engineering. Moreover, they proposed specific river regulation measures, such as how to construct dams, how to remove silt, and where to excavate the irrigation channels. This section highlights the instances of several engineering sites, the Yongding River (also known as the "Small Yellow River"), the Hongze Lake at the junction of the Yellow River, the Huai River, and the Canal, as well as the Yifeng area in the mid-stream of the Yellow River in the province of Henan, and the Qiantang River, known for its ever-changing tides. It is hoped that the presentation will help the audiences better understand the specific and concrete river regulation measures brought up by Qing emperors and governors, and that they will discover the correlation between construction engineering and changes in landforms.

    
Huanghe Qingkou Mulongtu
Map of Wooden Dragons in Qingkou

Attachment to a memorial presented by Gao Bin, Director-general of the Grand Canal
1749, Qing dynasty
  Gaoyan Shanxu Beiaishigong Duanluotu
Section Map of the Construction Sites in Gaoyan
and Shanxu
Qing dynasty
 
Express Delivery Warrant
Ministry of War
1778, Qing dynasty
  Qinding Xinyou Gongzhen Jishi
Chronicles of Relief Activities in the Year of 1802

Written on the imperial order of Emperor Jiaqing, Qing dynasty
Wuyingdian Palace imprint, 1802, Qing dynasty
Zhejiang Renhe Haining Erzhouxian Haitang Shashui Qingxingtu
Illustration showing the status of flooding in Renhe and Haining in Zhejiang

Qing dynasty
 
Jianshan Shiba Tu
Map of the Jianshanshi Dike

From the Qinding Nanxun Shengdian (Grand Occasion of the Southern Inspection), written on imperial order by Agūi, et al.
Court manuscript edition in red-lined columns, Qing dynasty
  Hegong qiju tushuo
Machinery and Implements Employed in River Engineering

Compiled by Linking
Imprint by the Yunyingtang Print House in 1836, Qing dynasty
Memorial on the failure of certain implements used in Yellow River flood control
Presented by Liu Tongxun, et al.
1754, Qing dynasty


Famous Governors in River Regulation

There were many talented river administrators who made substantial contributions in the Qing dynasty. They devoted their lives to river engineering, and accumulated abundant experiences in flood control. They never hesitated to express their personal opinions on river regulation in their written memorials to the throne, reports, and books, which also reflected the advances in river regulation techniques and flood control measures in the Qing dynasty. Among the more famous river administrators are Jin Fu, Chen Huang, and Zhang Peng-ho of the Kangxi reign, Qi Su-le and Ji Zeng-yun of the Yongzheng reign, Gao Bin, Ji Huang, and Kang Jitian of the Qianlong reign, as well as Lin Ze-xu and Lin Qing of the Jiaqing and Daoguang reigns. Aside from those of Han Chinese ethnicity, many of these governors were Manchus and Mongols, revealing that concerted and collective efforts, regardless of one’s ethnicity or place of origin, were essential when it came to stabilizing and improving people’s livelihood and national economy.

    
Hefang Shuyan
On River Defense

Narrated by Chen Huang, edited by Zhang Aisheng
From the Siku Quanshu Library of the Wenyuange Pavilion of the Qianlong reign (1736-1795), Qing dynasty
  Jiangfang Shulue
Introduction to River Defense

Written by Zhang Penghe
Imprint by the Chaos of Liuan
1831, Qing dynasty
 
Zhihe Shiyi
On River Regulation

Written by Zhang Penghe
Qing dynasty

  Zhang Penghe Liezhuan
Biography of Zhang Penghe

From the Guoshi Dachen Liezhuan (Biographies of Officials) compiled by the State Historiography Institute, Qing dynasty
Court manuscript edition in red-lined columns, Qing dynasty
 
Confidential memorial on the self-discipline of Director-general Cisule of the Grand Canal
Anonymous
Qing dynasty
  Memorial on the construction of river embankment and its preservation
Presented by Ji Zengyun
1723, Qing dynasty
   
Kang Jitian Liezhuan
Biography of Kang Jitian

From the Guoshi Dachen Liezhuan Tzubian (Second Series of the Biographies of Officials) compiled by the State Historiography Institute, Qing dynasty
Court manuscript edition in red-lined columns, Qing dynasty

  Hongxue Yinyuan Tuji
Tracks in the Snow: Memoir of Linking

Written by Linking
Imprint by the author
1847, Qing dynasty

 

Text and images are provided by National Palace Museum